Share and speak up for justice, law & order…
In 1928, the first one-way portable radio system was put into use in the City of Detroit (Ethw, 2018). Five years later, the Bayonne Police Department of Bayonne, New Jersey installed a two-way radio system in their police cars. In 1968, the 911 system emerged, giving citizens the ability to dial a simple number to request police services (Neusteter, S. et al., 2019). In the early 1970s, AT&T advanced the 911 system by piloting a program in Alameda County, California (Hovey, 1977). 911 legislation was enacted in numerous states in the 1970s and the emergency system began to grow quickly across the United States. By the end of the 20th century, approximately 93% of America’s population was using some sort of 911 system (Neusteter, S. et al., 2019).
Along with the emerging 911 system, nearly all police officers had a radio in their patrol cars and a handheld radio on their person by the end of the 1980s. In the mid-1990s, Radio Data Link Access Procedure (RD-LAP) technology facilitated the secure transmission of data to mobile data terminals in patrol cars while interfacing with computer-aided dispatch programs. The data was transmitted to the terminals through 900 MHz radio frequencies, giving officers the capability to access text information related to service calls (Salkinzis & Chamzas, 1997). While this technology marked a substantial advancement in how police officers received information, it suffered from a slow system and limited data transfer capacity over the 900 MHz band. Subsequently, LTE and 5G technologies have superseded RD-LAP. LTE boasts speeds of up to 100Mbps, and 5g can achieve speeds of up to 1Gbps, facilitating the rapid delivery of larger data volumes to field officers compared to the past.
The evolution of emergency response systems has been instrumental to improve public safety and reduce response times in critical incidents. However, the 911 system involves a one-way communication flow, with dispatchers relaying information between reporting parties and police officers. Often, the information from dispatchers is abridged as it is passed to the patrol officer over the radio or on a mobile data terminal. The information received by a patrol officer responding to a call for service is paramount to how the call is handled, especially in emergencies that require the officer to make split second decisions based on information received from the dispatcher. When a call for service results in a tragic outcome or poor customer service, public trust in policing is tarnished and vicarious liability increases exponentially. Information or the lack of information provided to a police officer is a significant factor for the officer to make the right decision, especially those split-second decisions in emergency situations (Taylor, P.L. 1970).
In the exploration of the historical evolution of communication systems in policing, it becomes evident that advancements in those systems has played a significant role in shaping how law enforcement responds to calls for service. Starting with the introduction of one-way portable radios in 1928 and culminating in the establishment of the 911 system, each developmental milestone has contributed to the efficiency of communication between dispatchers and police officers. Despite this progress, policing finds itself at a critical juncture where the limitations of the utilization of the 911 system by police departments are apparent. This article explores the challenges posed by existing communication flow, with a specific focus on the reliance on dispatchers as intermediaries. Furthermore, it examines the implications of ways direct communications between callers and police officers will alter how they interact with citizens during calls for service.
Evidence of successful direct communication
Forepaugh (2017), in his graduate school thesis study about the effects of priming, situational factors, and attitudes on deadly force decision making, noted that:
Officers are primed whenever they receive any details about an impending interaction
from dispatchers, witnesses, or some other source. This information includes the who, what, where, and when of the situation. Because such information is received before the interaction, this information very likely influences officers’ perceptions as they navigate the proceeding interaction. This perceptual influence becomes even more important when we consider the information provided to police dispatchers by reporting citizens may not be accurate. This could be because of misidentification by the reporting citizen, errors in translation, or even falsified details meant to elicit a faster police response. When the reported information is incorrect, the information then forwarded from dispatchers to officers is incorrect and may affect the resulting police-citizen interaction (p.25).
Prompt communication between reporting parties and police officers offers an opportunity, however, to decrease response times and increase safety for officers and those they contact. Providing officers with more data enables earlier intervention and enhances situational awareness (Ilijazi, V. et. al., 2019). Numerous case studies have unveiled that a lack of information or misinterpretation of information plays a pivotal role in the outcome of a service call (Keyes V.D, 2020). Recently, though, police agencies have begun exploring the advantages of direct communication using Live911.
Live911 is a software application pioneered by Chula Vista Police Department in 2019 that allows police officers to listen to 911 calls in real time in their car. Not only does Live911 provide officers with a head start to a critical incident, it also enables them to gather vital information earlier in the 911 process. Early direct communication between the officer and the reporting party may prove beneficial in achieving a positive outcome (Manning, 1989); however, it also presents challenges.
The availability of software applications such as Live911, coupled with advancements in mobile broadband technology, grants police departments the capability to access data in real-time. Following Chula Vista’s lead, the Clovis Police Department became the second police department in the United States to implement Live911 in 2020. Lt. Jim Munro emphasized the impact of Live911 on their operations, remarking that “Even though our dispatchers are super-fast and do great work, depending on how busy they are, it can take a minute and a half to two minutes to get that information out to the officers in the field” (Live911, n.d.).
The Live911 application has sparked a transformation in law enforcement by enabling a new form of communication. However, it does not facilitate direct communication between the officer and the caller. Despite this limitation, police departments nationwide have found success with Live911. In early 2019, the Chula Vista Police Department approached HigherGround, a public safety software development company, with the concept of enabling field officers to listen to live 911 calls. Collaborating closely, the two entities formed a partnership to create, refine, and test the Live911 software application. Chula Vista seamlessly integrated Live911 into its existing Drone as First Responder (DFR) program. This initiative involves deploying drones rapidly to obtain a comprehensive, real-time perspective of situations in response to incoming calls. In one instance, a caller reported a man with a gun at a local taco stand. The drone was deployed before the call was dispatched or officers arrived on scene. The drone operator observed the man using a gun-shaped lighter to light a cigarette, realizing that the caller had mistaken the light for a real gun. The drone operator immediately relayed this information to responding officers, allowing them to de-escalate their approach (Live911, n.d.).
After implementing Live911 in 2020, the Clovis Police Department has achieved similar success. There have been instances where officers could promptly respond to medical aid calls, enabling them to provide care more swiftly in medical emergencies. On other occasions, they were able to respond promptly, devise a plan, and manage a situation involving a suicidal gunman who had called 911; they also apprehended a burglary suspect without incident after responding quickly to a woman’s 911 call reporting a man with a knife attempting to break into her home while she and her two children were inside (Jackson, D., 2021).
In 2023 the Brookhaven Police Department became the first to adopt Live911 in Georgia. Officer Quentin Brown, on a night shift, heard a real-time 911 call while in his patrol car with a trainee. The Live911 application indicated that the caller was at a gas station less than 500 feet away. They heard the caller shouting, “My car!” This gave the officers a clear indication as to what was happening, prompting their response minutes before the official dispatch of the call for service. Upon arrival, they found the victim pushing against the driver’s-door of his vehicle. The suspect, attempting to steal the car without the keys, was apprehended and found with a hatchet in his pants. Because of Live911, the incident was resolved before the call was officially dispatched (Aaro, 2023).
Similar to Chula Vista using drones, other applications are available to supplement Live911. Officers can be quickly connected to a video conference or phone call to communicate with reporting parties in various situations, enabling them to promptly receive valuable information or initiate the resolution of a given situation. Moreover, callers making police reports or needing answers to simple questions can video conference with officers without a face-to-face encounter. Overall, the Live911 suite of applications enable officers to receive critical details directly from the source, leading to quicker and more informed responses to calls for service (Bergstrand F. & Landgren J., 2009).
Beyond resolving calls more safely, speaking directly to a person in crisis before the police arrive on scene may be an effective de-escalation practice. Direct communication can facilitate de-escalation efforts by providing officers with insights into the emotional state or intentions of a person (Todak, 2017). By being aware of specific circumstances officers can slow their approach and enter a situation with proper mindset, potentially preventing the escalation of a tense situation. Early de-escalation will result in less tragic outcomes which leads to a stronger trustworthy relationship between the police and the community (Abanonu R., 2023). Officers can provide guidance, instructions or reassurance before they arrive on scene, helping to manage the situation more effectively. This prompt communication provides an opportunity for a police officer to properly classify a call for service, which may result in a more desired outcome in many situations (Simpson R. & Orosco C., 2021). Reducing instances of inaccurate or incomplete information also allows officers to act in ways consistent with procedural justice while resolving calls for service (Flippin, M. et al., 2019).
Challenges to transition to direct officer communication
The success of prompt communication between reporting parties and police officers relies heavily on a robust technology infrastructure that can be complicated and costly for most police departments. Network connectivity, security structures and seamless integration with existing emergency response systems are essential (Moore, 2023). Enabling direct communication, however, raises privacy concerns for reporting parties. One issue to address is that dispatchers currently act as intermediaries between reporting parties and police officers, which maintains a level of confidentiality. Direct communication could expose a person reporting domestic violence or other sensitive calls for service. Top safeguard against that, the police will need to balance the need for direct communication while safeguarding the privacy of citizens in certain situations. A set of common protocols has already begun to emerge from case studies featured on the Live911 website. They are to:
- Prioritize Calls – Categorize calls based on urgency and severity. High priority calls, such as crimes in progress, need to be given immediate attention. Low-priority calls, such as report calls, can be transferred to a predesignated officer that takes reports or held until an appropriate time to transfer.
- Conduct an Initial Assessment – Dispatchers conduct an initial assessment of the nature of the call to determine the need for prompt field officer involvement. Dispatcher will gather basic information for non-emergency calls before transferring to the field officer.
- Protect Privacy – Dispatchers require training to assess whether transferring a call involves sensitive information that poses a risk to citizen privacy. Certain types of calls may require additional precautions.
- Determine means of communication – Report calls and less sensitive calls can be transferred via traditional phone calls. Video conferencing can be used for situations requiring visual assessment.
- Verify field officer availability – Before transferring a call, dispatchers will confirm the availability of a field officer. If no officer is available, the dispatcher will inform the caller and provide an estimated response time.
- Obtain Informed Consent – Dispatcher need to inform the caller about the transfer and the purpose of involving the field officer. Dispatcher need to seek the caller’s consent for video conferencing.
- Ensure Secure Transmission – Video conferencing transfers will adhere to secure and encrypted communication standards.
- Record and Document – It is recommended video conferencing calls be recorded for documentation purposes.
- Monitor Success and Feedback – It is recommended Police Departments establish a system to monitor the success of the program. Feedback from dispatchers and field officers need to be collected to identify areas for improvement.
While allowing for direct communication can provide valuable real-time information, it also introduces the risk of misinformation. Reporting parties may not have a clear understanding of the process or be under too much stress to produce accurate information for the officer, leading to the officer receiving inaccurate information during the process that could jeopardize the safety of responding officers and reporting parties. Police departments can minimize misinformation by establishing clear reporting protocols, train call takers, cross-reference information whenever possible, train officers in effective communication, utilize language services when language barriers are present and employ continuous training and evaluation programs. By combining these strategies, departments can work to minimize misinformation, enhancing the overall safety of both the public and responding officers.
Direct Real-Time Impact
Faster response times is always a goal for the police. Allowing for direct communication could help the officers assess a situation more quickly and respond accordingly, which could lead to favorable outcomes. This is particularly the case in rapidly evolving events. Allowing for direct communication creates a sense of transparency and trust between the police department and the community. Citizens may feel more involved in the process, which can lead to an improved relationship between the community and the police department (Hummer, D. & Byrne, J., 2017).
Using existing technology as a force multiplier will provide officers an opportunity to receive the maximum amount of information as possible while responding to calls for service, which places the officer in a position to make better and more informed decisions. Police leaders expect and desire police officers to use their best judgement when responding to the community. It is the responsibility of police leaders to implement change that provides a means for officers to use their best judgement as we move into the future.
Conclusion
Implementing direct communication between reporting parties and responding officers has the potential to bring numerous benefits, such as improved information sharing, better crisis management, increased community trust and transparency and faster response times. The challenges when considering these advancements include safety concerns, privacy issues, proper training and the effect on the department’s budget. Providing the highest level of service to the community means we must embrace bold ideas and commit to implementing them as creatively and collaboratively as possible. Our residents will not only enjoy directly speaking to a police officer but may feel more confident and less afraid knowing a hero is coming to save them.
Travis Tibbetts is a Lieutenant with the West Covina Police Department in Southern California. He has accumulated extensive experience in various roles throughout his career, such as Patrol, Investigations, Internal Affairs, Special Enforcement Team, and a decade on SWAT. Holding a Bachelor’s Degree in Public Administration, he is well-versed in the intricacies of law enforcement. Travis is a distinguished graduate of the POST Sherman Block Leadership Institute and is set to graduate from POST Command College in February 2024.
References
Aaro, D. (2023). Brookhaven’s new technology lets officers hear live 911 calls, respond quicker. The Atlanta Journal-Constitution. Retrieved December 15, 2023, from https//www.ajc.com/news/crime/brookhavens-new-technology-lets-officers-hear-live-911-calls-respond-quicker/LJLFSDOHFNCRJKKKXLVNB6XMAY/
Abanonu, R. (n.d.). De-escalating police-citizen encounters. Retrieved January 14, 2023, from https://weblaw.usc.edu/students/journals/rlsj/issues/assets/docs/volume27/Summer2018/3.Abanonu.pdf
Bergstrand, F., & Landgren, J. (2009). Using live video for information sharing in emergency response work. International Journal of Emergency Management, 6(3/4), 295.
https://doi.org/10.1504/ijem.2009.031567
Chula Vista Police Department enhances drone as first responder program with Live911. (n.d.). Live911.https://live911.com/case-studies/chula-vista-police-department-enhances-drone-as-first-responder-program-with-live911/
Clovis Police Department delivers a new level of efficiency with Live911. (n.d.). Live911. Retrieved December 15, 2023, from https://live911.com/case-studies/clovis-police-department-delivers-a-new-level-of-efficiency-with-live911/
Ethw. (2018, March 5). Milestones: one-way police radio communication, 1928. ETHW. https://ethw.org/Milestones:One-Way_Police_Radio_Communication,_1928
Flippin, M., Reisig, M. D., & Trinkner, R. (2019, July 12). The effect of procedural injustice during emergency 911 calls: A factorial vignette-based study – Journal of Experimental Criminology. SpringerLink. Retrieved January 24, 2023, from https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11292-019-09369-y
Forepaugh, C. (n.d.). Implicit Attitudes, Explicit Attitudes, and Priming: A Preliminary Analysis of Factors Affecting Use of Force Decisions. https://doi.org/10.34917/22110052
Hovey, S. W. (1977). Study for Alameda County 911.
Hummer, D., & Byrne, J. (2017). Technology, innovation and twenty-first-century policing. The Routledge Handbook of Technology, Crime and Justice, 375–389. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315743981-22
Ilijazi, V., Milic, N., Milidragovic, D., & Popvic, B. (2019). An Assessment of Police Officers’ Perception of Hotspots: What Can Be Done to Improve Officer’s Situational Awareness? ISPRS International Journal of Geo-Information, 8(6), 260. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijgi8060260
Jackson, D. (2021, February 24). California PD: ‘Game-Changing’ Live 911 streaming of emergency calls accelerates responses. IWCE’s Urgent Communications. https://urgentcomm.com/2021/02/24/california-pd-game-changing-live911-streaming-of-emergency-calls-accelerates-responses/
Keyes, V. D. (2020, February 1). Split-Second Syndrome & Officer created jeopardy: Implications for agency policy. Scholarly Works @ SHSU Home. Retrieved January 10, 2023, from https://shsu-ir.tdl.org/handle/20.500.11875/3085
Moore, L. K. S. (n.d.). Emergency communications: Broadband and the future of 911. Google
Books. Retrieved January 14, 2023 from https://books.google.com/books/about/Emergency_Communications.html?id=CKAvX1lHK2wC
Neusteter, S., Mapolski, M. Khogali, M., & O’toole, M. (2019). The 911 Call Processing System: A Review of the Literature as it Releates to Policing. https://www.vera.org/downloads/publications/911-call-processing-system-reveiw-of-policing-literature.pdf
Salkinzis, A. K., & Chamzas, C. (1997). Mobile packet data technology: an insight into MOBITEX architecture. IEEE Personal Communications, 4(1), 10-18. https://doi.org/10.1109/98.575987
Simpson, R., & Orosco, C. (2021). Re-assessing measurement error in police calls for service: Classifications of events by dispatchers and officers. PLOS ONE, 16(12). https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0260365
Taylor, P. L. (1970, January 1). Dispatch priming and the police decision to use Deadly force: Semantic scholar. Police Quarterly. Retrieved January 22, 2023, from https://www.semanticscholar.org/paper/Dispatch-Priming-and-the-Police-Decision-to-Use-Taylor/c76e993d2f8a658b71d94fc97969d5e9f8787696
Todak, N. (2017). De-escalation in police-citizen encounters: A mixed methods study of a … De-Escalation in Police-Citizen Encounters. Retrieved January 20, 2023, from https://de-escalate.org/wp-content/uploads/2019/02/De-Escalation-in-Police-Citizen-Encounters-A-Mixed-Methods-Study-of-a-Misunderstood-Policing-Strategy.pdf
Share and speak up for justice, law & order…
Source: www.lawofficer.com